1. What does accessibility mean?

2. What is accessible content?

3. What is the current legislation on accessibility and what are the implications for the publishing industry?

4. Who are the main promoters of the accessibility culture in publishing in Italy and worldwide?

5. What are the advantages of producing accessible eBooks and eJournals?

6. What is the Authors’ role in the production of accessible eBooks and eJournals?

7. How should text content be adapted and submitted to the editorial office?

8. What is the preliminary distinction of non-textual content?

9. How should informative images be adapted and submitted to the editorial office?

10. How to write an alternative text (alt-text)?

11. When is it necessary to submit a long description (long-desc)?

12. How to create tables.

13. How should mathematical formulas and scientific texts be created?

1. What does accessibility mean?

Accessibility is defined as the condition allowing people with permanent or temporary physical, mental, intellectual or sensory disabilities to benefit from an asset, resource or service, when this possibility would normally be precluded or limited to them.

2. What is accessible content?

Accessible content is digital content that can be adapted to different reading requirements by adopting assistive technologies normally used by blind and visually impaired people, or those with reading difficulties.

To be defined as accessible, the content must fulfil four basic principles, summarised in the WCAG (Web Content Accessibility Guidelines) drawn up by the World Wide Web Consortium. It must be:

• Perceivable: all senses must be able to ‘perceive’ the content, meaning that information and user interface components must be presented to users in ways that allow for them to be perceivable. This means that users must be able to perceive the information presented and that it must not be invisible to all their senses.
• Operable: the components of the user interface and navigation must be usable. This means that the interface requires interaction that the user cannot perform.
• Understandable: the content must follow a logical, simple and sequential reading order.
• Robust: the content must remain accessible over time and therefore be developed with technology that guarantees accessibility.

More specifically, according to the European Accessibility Act, in order to guarantee the accessibility requirements, all volumes in electronic format must comply with the following characteristics. They must:

• allow for enlarging the font of the text and changing the colours and contrast of the text and the background;
• contain a table of contents which allows for directly accessing all sections of the text;
• have titles identified as such in order to aid navigation;
• have an analytical table of contents for direct access to the linked indexed terms;
• content that follows a logical and correct reading order;
• have footnote references that are linked and allow access to notes and external websites if present;
• provide an alternative description for all non-textual contents (see 10. HOW TO WRITE AN ALTERNATIVE TEXT (ALT-TEXT)?);
• have tables that can be navigated by means of rows and columns. The table titles must be identified as such to facilitate navigation (see 12. HOW TO CREATE TABLES).

3. What is the current legislation on accessibility and what are the implications for the publishing industry?

The European Accessibility Act (EAA), approved on 17 April 2019, is a directive of the European Commission that aims to provide the regulatory instruments for a more inclusive society, ensuring that people with disabilities have better access to products and services while also eliminating the barriers created by divergent member state regulations.

The Marrakesh Treaty, one of the treaties administered by the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) which was adopted on 27 June 2013, aims to facilitate access to published works for people who are blind, visually impaired or have other reading difficulties, as well as introducing a set of exceptions to copyright for this purpose. Essentially, these exceptions make it possible for authorised entities - typically non-profit trade associations and federations representing persons with disabilities - to reproduce, distribute and make available published works in formats designed to be accessible and to enable the exchange of such works across borders without seeking authorisation from the copyright holder, which in most cases coincides with the publisher.

The European Accessibility Act and the Marrakesh Treaty are two separate regulations, but they both share the same fundamental objective: they have a significant impact on the publishing supply chain and industry due to the fact that digital content production and distribution strategies must adapt to the new legal requirements. Therefore, publishers, distributors, online bookshops, device manufacturers, and developers of reading solutions ... are invited to produce born accessible contents that are accessible from the start, right from the first design and production.

4. Who are the main promoters of the accessibility culture in publishing in Italy and worldwide?

In Italy, the Fondazione Libri Italiani Accessibili (LIA) (Italian Accessible Books Foundation), is the main promoter of the culture of accessibility in publishing and it also coordinates the recent project (Accelerating Publishing Accessibility through Collaboration in Europe). In addition, it cooperates with institutional members, national partners and publishing brands, together with international organisations, in the awareness-raising and technological development of the culture of accessibility. Furthermore, it also ensures the certification and construction of a catalogue of accessible books, and provides working tools (such as the handbook E-books for all. Towards an accessible publishing ecosystem) aimed at the realisation of a digital publishing ecosystem.

Other promoters of the accessibility culture in the world, apart from the international network reported on the LIA website, include:

• Benetech, a non-profit organisation that provides software for social welfare; on the website it is possible to view a page dedicated to certified publishers, namely, those who submit their products to the Global Certified Accessible) Process.
• Book Industry Study Group, an association that addresses policies, technical standards and research relating to books and publishing.
• Diagram Center, an offshoot of Benetech, aimed at improving the accessibility of digital images and graphics in educational media.
• Inclusive Publishing, an initiative of the Daisy Consortium, which aims to share knowledge to make mainstream publications accessible to everyone.
• NCAM, National Centre for Accessible Media, a national leader in making digital media accessible to people with disabilities
• WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organisation), in 2014 launched the Accessible Book Consortium, one of its aims being to implement the goals of the Marrakech Treaty.

5. What are the advantages of producing accessible eBooks and eJournals?

The publication of research products in accessible epub and/or html generates a number of benefits for the publisher, journal editors and the author by:

• promoting inclusiveness and access to education;
• aligning with current legislation and future developments that are becoming more and more sensitive to the issue of accessibility and inclusiveness;
• improving search engine optimisation by enhancing the scanning, indexing and ranking of resources and content on website pages, similar to the dissemination and impact goals of the Scientific Cloud for Books programme’s research products;
• reaching a much wider audience (in Europe, there are more than 100 million visually impaired people alone; see Book Journal, news of 17 January 2024).

Consistent with the current regulatory framework, implemented by the University of Florence (see, for example, the FAL Florence Accessibility Lab and A Guide for Journal Editors and Authors), the FUP is progressively adapting its services in order make its production processes aimed at publishing accessible eBooks and eJournals in epub and html format compliant with the general accessibility requirements.

The FUP therefore proposes - also with the use of external resources and with differentiated steps - to subject materials to compatibility checks and it is engaged in the validation process for confirming that the accessibility standards are met.

6. What is the Authors’ role in the production of accessible eBooks and eJournals?

In the process of production and distribution of accessible eBooks and eJournals, the collaboration between Author, Journal Editors and Publisher is of paramount importance in the final success of the product and persists in the principle of effective organisation of the workflow described in 3. Preparation of the Manuscript of the FUP Guide for Authors. The leading figures in the world of accessible publishing (in addition to the LIA, Benetech and the Accessible Books Consortium) in fact recommend adapting every stage of the processing to the born accessible concept (see 3. WHAT IS THE CURRENT LEGISLATION ON ACCESSIBILITY AND WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS FOR THE PUBLISHING INDUSTRY? The emphasis is on the full usability - especially for typical text-noted volumes or articles - of ‘Born Accessible Publications’. Namely, those that seamlessly include accessibility at all stages of the traditional digital publication process: from the author consciously using simple text editors for this purpose, to the reader reading using digital devices. In essence, they propose to integrate accessibility parameters into the publishing chain: from the preparation of the manuscript by the author to the subsequent production processes (delivery of materials, editorial control, editing, layout, preparation and proofreading, publication, distribution).

The proper structuring of the volume or article into its various parts, the prioritisation of the contents of each one, the submission to the editor of effective descriptive texts with images, graphs, tables and formulae, represent an optimal starting point. If some of these interventions can occasionally be carried out by editors or publishers, in terms of sustainability and scientific competence and clarity of interpretation and exposition, it is up to the author to take care of the preparation of the textual and non-textual apparatus of the manuscript in order to ensure the successful creation of a source file from which to export eBooks and eJournals in compliance with the accessibility standards

7. How should text content be adapted and submitted to the editorial office?

In view of the production of an accessible epub and/or html, the files must be adapted to the following formatting guidelines:

• Organization of the contents: divide the contents of the text into a hierarchy of titles, parts, chapters, sections and subsections arranged in sequence (Title 1.; Title 2. ...), establishing a coherent order; choose, if possible, titles that are not too long, and which can indicatively fit on a single line; divide the contents into paragraphs avoiding, if possible, particularly long ones or inserting sections that make reading easier.
• Italics and boldface: limit the use of italics and boldface to emphasise or achieve visual effects. Avoid italic text blocks, which are difficult to read for everyone, especially readers with visual impairments or perceptual disabilities. Try to restructure sentences to give emphasis rather than relying on formatting.
• Capitals: avoid formatting text in capital letters, which are difficult for most people with visual and perceptual disabilities to read.
• Use of colour: it is essential for colour not to be the only means of conveying information, instead consider adding textual elements (e.g. numbers or percentages on a chart).
• Acronyms and abbreviations: explain acronyms - especially lesser-known ones - the first time they are used, providing the version written in full followed by the acronym in brackets, e.g. Associazione Editori Sardi (AES). If possible, avoid Latin abbreviations in the body of the text (for example: e.g.; i.e.).
• Numbers: write ‘zero’ and ‘one’ in words to avoid potential confusion with the letters ‘o’ and ‘i’; use comma separators in numbers above 999 instead of spaces (e.g. 10,000, to avoid the reader perceiving ‘10 zero zero’ instead of ‘10 thousand’).
• Lists: create as a list the items that can be entered in any order; if the items in the list must be in a particular order, create a numbered list.
• Links: give a description of the link you are referring to (e.g. See the British Library’s collection of digitalized manuscripts instead of: For the British Library’s collection of digitised manuscripts; do not remove underlining from links; do not use underlining to emphasise the sentence in order not to generate ambiguity with respect to links.

8. What is the preliminary distinction of non-textual content?

When selecting non-textual contents (typically images) to accompany a volume or an article exportable in accessible epub and/or html, a distinction should be made between decorative and informative images.

Decorative images:

• do not provide a better understanding of the text;
• do not provide additional information to that already present in the text;
• only provide a visual decoration to the page.

No text is required to accompany decorative images.

Informative images:

• convey information;
• may also have a caption.

9. How should informative images be adapted and submitted to the editorial office?

Informative images should be accompanied by:

• a caption: normally next to the image, visible to everyone, provides a title and/or a brief description of the image that is not already in the visual element;
• alternative text (alt-text): a brief description of the content and functionality of the image that consists of plain text inserted as an attribute of the image and not displayed in the text, but which is only visible to assistive technologies and search engines. Not to be confused with the caption;
• a long description (long-desc): a more detailed explanation of the image, used only when the content of the image is complex (for example, a graph or infographics).

It is important to bear in mind that:

• captions and long descriptions are not compulsory, while the alternative text must be provided to the Editors;
• the mistake to be avoided is that of using the text of the caption as alternative text;
• alternative texts and long descriptions must not be used to replace the caption;
• alternative texts and long descriptions must not duplicate the caption.

Captions, alternative texts and long descriptions are to be prepared and submitted to the Editor as separate lists within a simple table with columns in a Word file.

10. How to write an alternative text (alt-text)?

When preparing the alternative text, take into account that the alternative text must:

• indicate the type of image described (for example, a graph, illustration, map, photograph, etc.) avoiding generic descriptions such as ‘figure;’
• replace the visual element itself without confusing the reader;
• be as objective and neutral as possible without providing judgements, feelings, or personal opinions;
• take the context into account (e.g. the image of a historical building needs a specific alt-text depending on whether it is inserted within a book or an article on history or architecture);
• avoid unnecessary details and maintain a length of about 125 characters (some screen readers automatically stop reading after 250 characters);
• end with a full stop.

Furthermore, the alternative text must NOT:

• repeat information already present in the text and/or in the caption;
• dwell on the appearance of the image and the colours, unless strictly necessary for understanding the image;
• use verbs in the passive form but instead, favour the active form to make the reading more fluid and immediate.

11. When is it necessary to submit a long description (long-desc)?

In the case of highly articulated visual content (e.g. diagrams, graphs, tables or complex images), in addition to the alternative text it may be useful to provide readers with a long description (long-desc).

12. How to create tables.

Tables are one of the most difficult elements for people with reading difficulties to follow because they have to remember information they cannot perceive at a glance, such as which column and row the value in each cell refers to.

It is therefore recommended to avoid using a particularly complex table as far as possible; instead, opt for breaking down the information into simpler tables.

The screen reader will read each cell in the order in which they are arranged, so it is essential to set the reading order correctly. To make it easier to read a table:

• set the table using the Enter > Table function instead of as a series of tabulations;
• do not create tables with only one column, instead create a list. Also consider the possibility of converting two-column tables into a list;
• try to keep the number of columns in a table to a minimum and avoid having more columns than rows;
• make sure that all columns have titles, even if the title seems obvious and can be understood from the table caption; the same applies to rows if there is a row cell that functions as a label for the entire row;
• do not leave empty cells, which could lead to confusion and ambiguity. If there are no values for the cell, indicate this by using a zero or ‘null data’ convention, making this explicit in the table caption.

13. How should mathematical formulas and scientific texts be created?

Texts related to science and technology disciplines (STEMS) can be particularly challenging for people with reading difficulties as they contain formulas and data representations that generally convey complex and data-rich information.

Mathematical formulas can be managed as: 1) ordinary text; 2) images accompanied by alt-text; 3) MathML.

1) When creating formulas and mathematical expressions as ordinary text, be sure to use the correct symbols:

• multiplication symbol (×) instead of the sans serif letter ‘x’;
• degree symbol (°) instead of a superscript zero (0);
• minus symbol (–) instead of a short dash (-) or middle dash (–);
• correct square root symbol (√3) instead of the typed symbol without the upper line (√3);
• symbol for ‘first’(f´(x)) instead of an apostrophe (f‘(x)).
• division symbol (÷) to indicate ‘divided by’ instead of using an oblique slash (/).
• oblique slash to indicate a measure of speed, e.g. ‘km/h’ (‘kilometres per hour’).
• enter a space after each character, e.g. corner A B C line D E to avoid screen readers reading them as one word.

2) When creating mathematical formulas and expressions as images, they must be accompanied by alternative text (see 10. HOW TO WRITE AN ALTERNATIVE TEXT [ALT-TEXT]?).

In the case of alternative text for mathematical images, it must be ensured that the words correspond to a single mathematical expression rather than several different expressions, as this could lead to ambiguity and confusion.

3) A very valid option for managing formulas is the universal markup language MathML. Although it is an excellent method for making mathematics accessible and representing symbols and formulae, its implementation can be cumbersome and requires prior intervention by the author. In order to follow this procedure correctly, it will be necessary to contact and coordinate with the editorial team prior to the drafting of the volume or article.

For guidance on the most appropriate solution based on the contents of the publication and especially the extent of the mathematical formulas present, please contact the editorial team of volumes (redazione.volumi@fup.unifi.it) or journals (journalsupport@fup.unifi.it) in advance.

For further details, please refer to section 9 and the relevant subsections of the FUP Guide for Authors.